Tutorial: Closures and Capturing

Closures are anonymous functions that can be stored in variables, passed to other functions, and returned from functions. They are a natural fit for small bits of behaviour that need to travel with data.

A basic closure

Closures use the (...) -> ... { ... } form:

fun main() {
    let double = (x: Int) -> Int { return x * 2; };
    println(double(21));   // 42
}

The closure has the function type (Int) -> Int.

tip

Useful Rule

If a parameter expects (Int) -> Int, you can pass either a named function or a closure with that shape.

Passing closures around

Closures and named functions can be used through the same function type:

fun apply_twice(f: (Int) -> Int, x: Int) -> Int {
    return f(f(x));
}

fun main() {
    let bump = (x: Int) -> Int { return x + 1; };
    println(apply_twice(bump, 10));   // 12
}

This is the basic pattern behind callbacks and small reusable transforms.

A useful mental model is: a closure is a function value that may carry some captured context with it.

Capturing values from the outside

A closure can use bindings from the surrounding scope:

fun main() {
    let suffix = "!";
    let excite = (word: String) -> String {
        return word + suffix;
    };

    println(excite("Metel"));   // Metel!
}

The closure body refers to suffix even though suffix is not a parameter. That is a capture.

note

Capture Means “Use an Outer Binding”

If the closure body mentions a binding declared outside the closure, that binding becomes part of the closure's environment.

Shared mutable state uses pointers

Closures capture by value. If you want shared mutable state across closures, make that sharing explicit with a pointer:

fun main() {
    let mut count = 0;
    let p: *mut Int = &mut count;

    let inc = () -> () {
        *p += 1;
    };

    let get = () -> Int {
        *p
    };

    inc();
    inc();
    println(get());   // 2
}

This keeps shared mutation explicit. The closures do not magically share count; they share the pointer p.

caution

Shared Mutation Must Be Explicit

If multiple closures need to mutate the same value, introduce a pointer on purpose. Ordinary closure capture is not the mechanism for implicit shared mutable state.

Returning a closure

Closures can be returned like any other value:

fun make_adder(base: Int) -> (Int) -> Int {
    return (x: Int) -> Int {
        return x + base;
    };
}

fun main() {
    let add_five = make_adder(5);
    println(add_five(9));   // 14
}

The returned closure keeps access to base, so the behaviour stays tied to the value captured when it was created.

Returning a closure lets you build small configurable behaviours without introducing a named struct or enum just to hold one captured value.

A practical example

Here a closure tracks how many items matched a filter:

fun main() {
    let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6];
    let mut matched = 0;
    let matched_ptr: *mut Int = &mut matched;

    let is_even = (x: Int) -> Bool {
        if (x % 2 == 0) {
            *matched_ptr += 1;
            return true;
        }
        return false;
    };

    for (let value in values) {
        if (is_even(value)) {
            println("${value} is even");
        }
    }

    println("matched ${*matched_ptr} values");
}

The closure both computes an answer and updates shared state, but the shared state is explicit because it flows through matched_ptr.

For the public language today, the main rules to remember are:

• closures use (...) -> ... { ... }
• they can capture outer bindings
• shared mutable state across closures should be explicit and pointer-based

What you learned

• Closures are anonymous functions with ordinary function types.
• They can be passed, stored, and returned.
• A closure captures bindings from the surrounding scope automatically.
• Shared mutable closure state is explicit: use pointers when multiple closures must mutate the same value.

Next: Control Flow and Errors — loops, optional values, and error handling.